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Differentiable Clustering Problem Formulation Let $\mathcal{X} = \{x_1, x_2, \dots, x_N\}$ denote a dataset of $N$ items, where each $x_i \in \mathbb{R}^d$ is a dense embedding vector representing a text tag. Our objective is to partition $\mathcal{X}$ into $k$ distinct clusters. We define a differentiable, parametric mapping $$ f_\theta : \mathbb{R}^d \rightarrow \Delta^{k-1} $$where $\Delta^{k-1}$ is the standard $(k - 1)$-dimensional probability simplex. The function $f_\theta$ is defined as a linear projection followed by a softmax activation: ...

When training models, we sometimes encounter strange cases. For example, an obvious sample that is misclassified. This makes us wondering how come a model that is apparently doing ok on a whole benchmark, can fail at such an easy case. And it makes us realize that our model, or our benchmark, might not be as reliable as we thought. Which is very scary. In this article, we are going to talk about how to understand, what the model is actually learning, on what kind of features it might be relying to to achieve the task that we are training it for. The difficult thing is that a model is made up millions, and now very often billions of parameters, so looking at them each is not an option. ...

If you did not read the first part, it is available here https://bornlex.github.io/posts/markuplm/ ! The main content can be understood on its own, but for the practical examples, reading the first part will make things easier. Now that the inner workings of the model are clearer, let’s actually talk about debugging it. Debugging a machine learning model is not easy, but there are a few things we can do. In this article, we are going to talk about two of them : ...

Scraping is a topic I like. Gathering data and making sure they are fresh is an interesting problem. Among the many things that you have to do when scraping, making sure your data is fresh is an important one. Let’s give a few tips to our fellow scraper. Problem definition We are building a intelligent (hopefully) system that optimizes when we should visit an URL. We don’t want to spend too much resource on refreshing too often, and we want our data to be as fresh as possible. ...

Motivations Basic GPT-2 Recently, I rewrote GPT2 as an exercice to help me prepare for big AI companies interviews. After reading the paper and reused the Shakespeare dataset given by Karpathy in its nanoGPT project, I started to write the code for the whole model : LayerNorm Attention layer Training loop Feed forward network (FFN) Positional embedding Model improvements I then focused on improving the model by implementing a few features such as : ...

The KV cache is an important feature in today’s LLM infrastructure. To understand exactly what it brings, let’s recall how LLMs are being used for inference. Introduction 💡 Feel free to read my article about Multi-head Self Attention for more explanation about the variations around the Attention layer ! When LLMs are being used in production to generate text, they generate one word at a time. For example, from the following prompt : ...

Motivations Attention is now a key component for most AI systems, wether they are working with images, sequences of tokens in language processing. It has been introduced by one of the most famous papers in deep learning : Attention is All You Need. The idea behind attention is to map two sequences (or the same sequence to itself, called cross attention) and learn how items in the sequences are related to each other. Whether it is to map two sequences of two different languages in the case of translation, or to map tokens from the same sequence to identify links between words such as : ...

Positional embedding Motivation As we saw earlier, multi-head self attention layer assigns the same output for every identical token, regardless of their position. This can cause obvious problems in sentences where the same word is used multiple times to represent different entities such as : The red car turned left where the yellow card turned left. The two occurrences of the “car” word represent different actual cars. They cannot be treated the same way. ...

Introduction Today, let’s talk about reinforcement learning, and more specifically policy-based reinforcement learning. Policy-based reinforcement learning is when we directly parametrize the policy, meaning we are looking for a policy such as : $$ \pi_{\theta}(s, a) = p(a | s, \theta) $$In other words, we are looking for a function that represents the probability of our agent taking a specific action $a$ in a state $s$. Think about a state as the position on the chess board for instance and the action as the move to be played next. ...

When fine tuning or even training a model, hardware resources are often the bottleneck, and with today’s model sizes, the limiting factor is often GPU memory. As an example, let’s take a Qwen 2.5 3B models. As the name says, it contains approximately 3 billion parameters. The model available on HuggingFace is saved with bf16, meaning it contains: Sign bit : 1 bit Exponent : 8 bits Significant precision : 7 bits So the total size in memory for 1 parameter among the 3 billion is 16 bits, which is 2 bytes. To store the whole model, the memory will need to be at least 6 billion bytes (6Gb). ...